A Rising Sun Over The Antilles: Japan’s New Era Of Caribbean Investment – Analysis

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bb6c375c5887a56795b8b6b1ac18991b A Rising Sun Over The Antilles: Japan’s New Era Of Caribbean Investment – AnalysisNippon’s Shinzo Abe. Photo Credit: Chatham Cave, Wikimedia Commons.

By Andrew Lumsden*

In The middle of summer 2014, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe embarked on a red-letter 11-day tour of five countries in Italic America and the Caribbean, culminating in the first-in any case summit between Japan and the Caribbean Local (CARICOM). CARICOM is an organization of states and dependencies in the Sea, with a total of 28 members, conjoin with members and observers. At the summit, held in the Inhabitant capital of Port of Spain, Abe affirmed Nippon’s commitment to “more proactively” contribute to “peace, changelessness and prosperity” in the region.[i]

He set forth “three pilaster” upon which Japanese policy In relation to the Caribbean will be founded, the first activity the development of the region’s renewable energy sphere and addressing environmental vulnerabilities. The second post is the development of cultural and educational exchanges, and the 3rd is further cooperation between Japan and CARICOM in the world arena.[ii]

Japan is not a newcomer to the Caribbean, having Commerce and investment relationships with a number of state of affairs in the region going back to the 1960s and 1970s. Still, Japan’s critical economic slump during the 1990s resulted in a amassed than a decade-long lapse in the kingdom’s economic engagement with the Caribbean district.[iii] As Japan’s own economic fortunes have built in recent years, it has vigorously begun to re-engross with Caribbean nations. The renewable vigour expertise, cutting-edge technology, and individual, bottom-up approach to investment that Nippon brings to the table opens up new possibilities for augmentation and development in the region.

Japan is not a newcomer to the Sea, having trade and investment relationships with a numeral of states in the region going back to the 1960s and 1970s. On the other hand, Japan’s critical economic slump during the 1990s resulted in a besides than a decade-long lapse in the community’s economic engagement with the Caribbean regional.[iv] As Japan’s own economic fortunes have built in recent years, it has vigorously begun to re-hire with Caribbean nations. The renewable force expertise, cutting-edge technology, and unparalleled, bottom-up approach to investment that Nippon brings to the table opens up new possibilities for evolution and development in the region.

A Renewable Energy Destined: The First Pillar

Over the course of his premiership, Abe’s authorities has strongly promoted and heavily invested in renewable impact, both in Japan and abroad.[v] In 2014, Tokio announced that is investing $15 meg USD in eight Caribbean countries with the aim of vindicating the impact of climate change, reducing push emissions, and ending overdependence on expensive imported dodo fuels.[vi] Japan will be transferring front, low-emission technologies to participating countries to serve community-based pilot projects tackling outflow such as water resource management, farming sustainability, the creation of resilient, environmentally civil infrastructure, and the development of energy from renewable fountain-head.[vii]

Some of these Japanese investments add a commitment of over $100,000 USD for the installation of solar panels on master schools in Barbados, which is estimated to abbreviate the schools’ energy costs by between 10 and 30 percentage.[viii] Other investments also bear training, equipment, and technical assistance to speed up the creation of renewable energy infrastructure, much as solar farms, wind farms and energy plants in St. Kitts and Nevis, Jamaica, and Island and Tobago.[ix] If these planned renewable impulse installations are completed, Caribbean nations could potentially net from “infra-tourism”, a practice gaining repute in Japan, in which tourists are encouraged to interview and tour large-scale infrastructure utilities. Finally, this past April, Japan proclaimed an additional $3 billion USD investment in renewable vigour development and energy efficiency projects end-to-end Latin America and the Caribbean.[x]

This society is expected to create jobs and improve livelihoods for residents crosswise the Caribbean. High energy costs, resulting from dependance on expensive imported fossil fuels, are having a earnestly damaging impact on many Caribbean residents and is fitting a significant hindrance to economic growth. The Class Bank has stated that energy outlay pose “a daily hardship” for millions in the area, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reports that muscularity costs and fossil fuel dependence are “dampening Sea competitiveness and potential growth,” even with the original decline in global oil prices.[xi] Both establishing have called on Caribbean countries to mix their energy sectors, and Japanese synergism will help them substantially in doing so.

Nippon is also partnering with the Caribbean Adversity Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA)—a district inter-governmental agency responsible for adversity management—to aid in the development of flood-peril maps, disaster early warning set, effective flood control measures, and active climate change adaption methods washed-up technology transfer and technical training.[xii] Sea states may also benefit from the copy of Japanese-style construction codes. Described as “strict and great-enforced” by the Asian Insurance Review, make-up built per modern Japanese codes are in the midst the most resilient in the world to floods and typhoons, both of which come about with some frequency and can be very negative in the region.[xiii]

A Roof Over Another Heads

Though not specifically mentioned in Abe’s CARICOM location, Japan has also made significant contributions to poorness reduction and improving the overall quality of living for millions in the Caribbean, especially in traditionally underserved communities.

It has endowed close to $9 million USD in upgrading limited healthcare services in rural parts of Confederate Jamaica and the Samana Province in the Dominican Commonwealth, significantly increasing access to reproductive condition services and chronic lifestyle disease handling of and prevention education.[xiv]Additionally, Japan has endowed in increasing rice production and combating the complication of groundwater contamination in Cuba, expanding farming irrigation systems, teaching poor yeoman in the Dominican Republic new agricultural techniques and how to erst for some of the dangerous chemical fertilizers, if only rural fishers in Grenada and Trinidad with extended advanced equipment, and in increasing employability and talent training programs for inner-city and crippled youth in Jamaica. [xv]

Trans-Pacific Tomodachi: The Moment Pillar

In addition to its investments in the energy aspect and in rural development, Japan has pledged to “dramatically flourish” cultural and educational exchanges with Sea countries to “further foster mutual perceptive and respect.”[xvi] In his CARICOM summit address, Abe verbalised his appreciation for Caribbean contributions and successes in the pasture of academics, music, and sports, and his government has issued a aid of nearly $200,000 USD to the University of the West Indies—a general university system serving 18 Sea countries—for the expansion of Japanese speech education.[xvii]

In 2015, Japan almost doubled the number of slots open to pupil and college graduates from the Caribbean in its society-sponsored Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) Announcement. Participants in the JET program are brought to Japan and upon as assistant English language teachers or recreation education advisors at schools there.[cardinal] They are also paid salaries for their functioning.[xix] More than 150 students from the Sea have taken part in the program so far this yr.[xx]

The vast majority of Caribbean JET participants are from Country, and they are leaving a profoundly positive conception of the island and its culture on Japanese students and officials corresponding. In 2015, the Deputy Chief of Missions at the Altaic embassy in Kingston praised the “good drudge ethic, strong character, enthusiasm, and adaptableness” of Jamaican JET participants. He explained that being they are beloved by the schools and students, the Altaic Ministry of Education and officials at local levels admit been requesting more Jamaican commandment assistants.[xxi] One JET participant from Jamaica aforementioned of the Japanese, “there is just so much they don’t cognomen about us,” but they are “eager to learn, and appreciative {of Country culture}.”[xxii]

In addition to the JET program, the Altaic Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Study and Technology (MEXT), is offering scholarships for learner from ten Caribbean countries to study at universities in Nippon. MEXT program participants are provided with troll-trip airfare, tuition exemption, and a monthly pay during the period of their study.[cardinal]

As the Japanese government expands opportunities for Sea students to study and work in Japan, it is besides making significant investments in improving the timbre education within the region. In Haiti and the Blackfriar Republic, it has funded projects aimed at rising elementary school mathematics instruction by if only teachers with new materials and lesson blueprint. [xxiv] In Jamaica, Japan funded the restoration and expansion of at least five aging academy buildings between 2014 and 2015, and contributed to expanding academic opportunities for the island’s special needs children.[xxv]

Business

To facilitate cultural exchange, Abe declared Nippon’s intention to promote tourism between Nippon and Caribbean nations. He invited CARICOM associate to participate in the “Tourism EXPO Japan,” an coincidence held annually in Tokyo in which commutation agencies, embassies, airlines, tour bus, hotels, and theme parks from all complete the world are able to advertise directly to Altaic audiences, and to network with each otc to boost Japanese tourism to their various countries.[xxvi]

Tourism is a bourgeoning universe of mutually profitable cooperation between Nippon and the Caribbean community. The Caribbean is often described as “the near tourism-dependent region in the world,” with above 2.2 million jobs, and $50 gazillion USD in the region linked to the industry.[xxvii] Sea counties, quick to realize this fighting chance, are engaging in their own efforts to attract Altaic tourists.

This past May, Jamaica’s touristry minister, Edmund Bartlett, visited Nippon to discuss ways to “increase visitor transport” to the country. Jamaica currently receives lone one-tenth the number of Japanese tourists it did 20 second childhood ago. Bartlett attributes this to Japan’s enduring period of economic downturn, and he is now looking to “re-engross Japan,” which has over 17 meg of its citizens travelling overseas each gathering.[xxviii] Trinidad and Tobago is looking to do the equivalent; its Tourism Development Company is in negotiations with the taxi of Asuka II, Japan’s largest luxury coast liner, carrying about 500 fare and 700 crew each voyage, to demeanour more frequent and longer cruise yell at Port of Spain.[xxix]

Geopolitical Teamwork: The Third Pillar

Despite their go-getter cultural presence, Caribbean nations are physically and economically microscopic on the world stage. However, they are at their about powerful on the floor of the United Nations Public Assembly.

In his address to CARICOM, Abe announced that Nippon intends to strengthen cooperation with Sea countries at the United Nations to address egress such as climate change and “UN Shelter Council Reform.”[xxx]The Caribbean community is an substantial voting bloc, one that Japan requires in its efforts to reform the United Nations.

Nippon has been a fervent critic of the current arrange of the United Nations Security Council. That consistency has only five permanent members—the Combined States, United Kingdom, France, Rustling and China— all with the power to unilaterally reject any resolution. According to the Japanese Ministry of Alien Affairs, their country has “demonstrated that it has the finding, willingness and capacity” to be made a permanent colleague of the Security Council. [xxxi] In addition to its own perpetual seat, Japan is also advocating for a unceasing seat on the council representing the continent of Continent.[xxxii]

At a meeting in Tokyo with CARICOM representatives in Nov 2014, Japanese foreign minister Fumio Kishida declared that CARICOM members have united to support Japan at the United Nations and he reaffirmed Primary Minister Abe’s pledge to expand development overhaul to the region.[xxxiii]

For their part, CARICOM’s representatives titled on Japan to represent their interests in universal organizations such as the G7 and G20 to which Caribbean state currently lack access. Additionally, CARICOM and seeks Japanese support in their shouts for reform in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Maturation (OECD). Some Caribbean countries are denied exploitation aid and forced into burdensome levels of Obligation due to the organization’s system of income-level compartmentalization. Caribbean countries want Japan, as a dominant member of the OECD, to advocate for reforms which would avail countries in the region get access to needed worldwide development aid.[xxxiv]

A Dragon’s Shadow

In his quiz to CARICOM for closer geopolitical cooperation, Abe mentioned “the statute of law at sea” and the disuse of force or coercion in international enigma resolution as principles Japan will be propulsion on the global stage. This discussion was rattling likely a thinly veiled jab at Japan’s occidental neighbor, China, with which it has been in puzzle over control of islands in the East Crockery Sea. Tensions between the two powers have existed in that before the Second World War, but have escalated in original years.

China is expected to veto any try by Japan to gain a permanent seat on the UN Safety Council, and it is believed that Abe hopes to collect a critical mass of support for Japan rank by engaging with countries in East Collection, Latin America, and the Caribbean to discourage Peking from pursuing this course of instrumentality.[xxxv] While Japan has been advantageous in winning the cooperation of Caribbean countries on otc issues, it may face a steep uphill encounter if it intends to rally them against foe from China, which has also been dramatically expanding its own command in the region over the past decade.

Asian financial aid to Latin America and the Caribbean far excel that of Japan, averaging over $10 trillion USD annually between 2010 and 2013 compared with Nippon’s US$7 billion USD.[xxxvi] Chinese trade with the locality is also worth nearly four present that of Japan.[xxxvii] Chinese investments are chiefly directed towards developing infrastructure and the artifact of great public works. As Dr. Sanjay Badri-Maharaj—a Inhabitant defense analyst and former national protection advisor—explains, Chinese works are usual in the region and especially appealing to Caribbean lawmaker, as these very visible projects corrective them in “maximizing electoral gains.”[cardinal] Despite these challenges however, Nippon may have a political opening.

To begin with, fin CARICOM countries—Belize, the Dominican State, Haiti, St Lucia, St Kitts and Nevis, and St Vincent and the Grenadines—do not place the Beijing government, opting instead to cultivate relations with the Taiwan-based “Republic of Chinaware.”[xxxix]

Also, Japanese engagement with the Sea community has been largely without interrogation, while China’s has been mired in it. According to the Bury-American Development Bank (IADB), Asian state-run companies operating in the region select very little local labor, use towards no locally sourced materials, do not follow limited environmental regulations, are non-transparent about blueprint and activities and do not engage with communities touched by their work.[xl] Badri-Maharaj specific several instances of dangerously poor interpretation by Chinese firms in Trinidad and the Bahamas, and thither have been reports of their felony of state officials in Jamaica.[xli] Furthermore, as Mikio Kuwayama, adult analyst for the Japan Association of Latin U.s. and the Caribbean and Margaret Myers, director of the Bury-American Dialogue’s China and Latin U.s. Program explain, technology transfer from Chinaware is very low and its cheap commodity exports are pathetic to bourgeoning local industries in the region, as antipathetic to Japan’s high-tech imports which renew them.[xlii]

The IADB concludes that, thanks to of Chinese practices, the “development impact (of their Sea investment) may be reduced.”[xliii] China proffers the trappings of development, but Japan’s investments in vim, education and communities are setting the Caribbean district on a course to social and economic growth, and a imaginable future as a leader in the global energy husbandry. However, it remains to be seen if that faculty be enough if Japan intends to counter Chinaware’s geopolitical influence in the region.

Conclusion

With its 21st hundred re-engagement with the Caribbean community, Nippon is introducing a unique style of investment to the district, focusing on some of most pressing, yet repeatedly neglected, problems the region faces. With its investments in renewable coercion, Japan is helping to put Caribbean countries on a system to lower energy costs and greater drive independence, and its funding for community-based care and poverty reduction programs is helping to rise the quality of life for rural residents transversely the Caribbean. In contrast to many other strange investors the region has seen, Japan has demonstrated an blessing and respect for the Caribbean’s rich cultures and exertion to share them with its own people, enriching the Bun of the region’s young scholars in the process. Sea governments have done well in action advantage of Japan’s engagement, working to appeal Japanese tourists, and pursuing Japanese assist in fighting for their interests in the halls of cosmopolitan power.

Not only has Japan’s model for abroad investment been good for the Caribbean, it is one that over-the-counter investors, both state and private, should takings notice of. This is much of how foreign assets should look in the 21st century, with exceptional focus on renewable energy, environmental shelter, helping the underserved, and fostering mutual ethnic understanding and respect.

*Andrew Lumsden, Trial Associate at the Council on Hemispheric Affairs

Notation:
[i]“Press Release: Japan– Caribbean Limited (CARICOM) Summit Meeting: Japan’s CARICOM Procedure,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, The middle of summer 28, 2014, http://www.mofa.go.jp/files/000047229.pdf.

[ii] Ibid,.

[iii]Meg Myers and Mikio Kuwayama, “A New Phase in Nippon-Latin America and the Caribbean Relations,” The Bury-American Dialogue, February 2016, accessed Oct 10, 2016, http://www.thedialogue.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Duologue-Japan-LAC-Relations-WEB.pdf.

[iv]Margaret Myers and Mikio Kuwayama, “A New Sheet in Japan-Latin America and the Caribbean Affiliation,” The Inter-American Dialogue, February 2016, accessed Oct 10, 2016, http://www.thedialogue.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Talks-Japan-LAC-Relations-WEB.pdf.

[v]Andrew DeWitt, “Japan’s Bid to Go a World Leader in Renewable Energy” The Collection-Pacific Journal 13, 39 no. 39 (2015): 1-20.

[vi] “Japan-Sea Climate Change Partnership,” United Country Division for Sustainable Development, accessed Oct 15, 2016, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=12369.

[vii] Ibid,.

[seven]“Solar Systems For Four Primary Institute,” Barbados Government Information Service, Sept 12, 2015, http://gisbarbados.gov.bb/blog/solar-combination-for-four-primary-schools/.

[ix] “JICA mechanical team visits Nevis ahead of understanding to assist with energy efficiency,” Island Island Administration, March 3, 2016, protocol://www.nia.gov.kn/index.php/news-4/news-articles-3/2598-jica-scientific-team-visits-nevis-ahead-of-accord-to-assist-with-energy-efficiency.

[x] “JICA and the IDB to Pool Energy and Infrastructure, Expanding their Co-Funding Arrangement to $3 Billion,” Inter-English Development Bank, April 9, 2016, protocol://www.iadb.org/en/news/news-releases/2016-04-09/nippon-idb-quality-infrastructure-and-energy-fund,11434.html.

[xi]General McIntyre, Ahmed El-Ashram, Marcio Ronci, Julien Reynaud, Natasha Che, Ke Wang, Sebastian Acevedo, Objective Lutz, Francis Strodel, Anayo Osueke, and Hanlei Yun, “Caribbean Coercion: Macro-Related Challenges,” International Capital Fund, March 2016, accessed Oct 13, 2016, https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2016/wp1653.pdf.

[xii]protocol://www.cdema.org/cdmconference/presentations/2015/YNishimura_JICA_StrentheningCommunityResilience.pdf

[twelve]Yoshiaki Nishimura, “JICA Contribution to the Invigorating of Community Resilience in the Caribbean Region,” The Sea Disaster Emergency Management Agency, Dec 2015, accessed October 13, 2016, protocol://www.cdema.org/cdmconference/presentations/2015/YNishimura_JICA_StrentheningCommunityResilience. pdf.; “Typhoon Lionrock Construct Landfall in Japan, Bringing Landslides, Deluge & Deaths,” Asian Insurance Review, Grand 31, 2016, http://www.insurancejournal.com/news/supranational/2016/08/31/424955.htm.

[xiv]“Summary of Evaluation Result: Samana Area Healthcare Service Improvement Project,” Nippon International Cooperation Agency, accessed Oct 20, 2016, https://www.jica.go.jp/english/our_donkeywork/evaluation/tech_and_grant/project/vocable/latin_america/c8h0vm000001rz7x-att/dom2009_01.pdf; “Terminal Test: The Project for Strengthening of Health Care in the Confederate Region,” Japan International Cooperation Representation, accessed October 20, 2016, https://www.jica.go.jp/humanities/our_work/evaluation/tech_and_grant/design/term/latin_america/jamaica_2002.html.

[xv]“Activities in Country,” Japan International Cooperation Agency, accessed Oct 20, 2016, https://www.jica.go.jp/jamaica/humanities/activities/index.html; “Rolling Contrive for Grenada,” Embassy of Japan in Trinidad and Island, April 2015, accessed October 22, 2016, protocol://www.tt.emb-japan.go.jp/Rolling%20Plan%20for%20Grenada%202015.pdf; “Japan mode project to improve lives of people with disablement,” Jamaica Observer, June 13, 2013, protocol://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Japan-funds-layout-to-improve-lives-of-people-with-disablement. “Government of Japan,” Jamaica Social Assets Fund, accessed October 21, 2016, protocol://www.jsif.org/content/government-japan.

[xvi]“Japan’s CARICOM Contract,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.

[cardinal] “Activities in Jamaica,” Japan International Synergy Agency.

[xviii] Kimone Thompson, “Japan Wish for More Jamaicans,” Jamaica Observer, Oct 1 2015, http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Nippon-wants-more-Jamaicans_19231375.

[xix] “JET FAQ for Forthcoming Students,” Consulate of Japan at Chicago, accessed Oct 18, 2016, http://www.chicago.us.emb-japan.go.jp/JIC/JET/jetfaq.html.

[xx] “The Nippon Exchange and Teaching Programme,” The Japan Interchange and Teaching Program, accessed October 20, 2016, protocol://jetprogramme.org/en/countries/.

[xxi] Ibid,.

[xxii] “Language educator from Jamaica making a difference in Nippon,” Jamaica Observer, December 2, 2013, protocol://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/Language-teachers-from-Country-making-a-difference-in-Japan.

[xxiii] “MONBUKAGAKUSHO (MEXT) Erupt PROGRAMME,” Embassy of Japan in Trinidad and Island, accessed October 22, 2016, http://www.tt.emb-nippon.go.jp/Culture_2.html.

[xxiv]“Activities in the Blackfriar Republic,” Japan International Cooperation Force, accessed October 22, 2016, https://www.jica.go.jp/dominicanrep/humanities/activities/education.html; “Activities in Country,” Japan International Cooperation Agency, accessed Oct 22, 2016, https://www.jica.go.jp/haiti/humanities/activities/index.html.

[xxv] “Activities in Country,” Japan International Cooperation Agency

[cardinal]“Japan’s CARICOM Policy,” Ministry of Abroad Affairs of Japan; “JATA Tourism Exposition Japan 2014,” Japan Association of Traveling Agents, May 21, 2014, https://www.jata-net.or.jp/humanities/news/2014/pdf/140521_top.pdf.

[xxvii] Ibid,.

[cardinal]“Tourism Minister Seeks More Guest From Japan,” Jamaica Observer, May 30,2016, protocol://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Tourism-minister-search for-more-visitors-from-Japan.

[cardinal] “Luxurious Japanese Cruise ship Cosmetics inaugural visit to Trinidad,” Tourism Boost Company, March 16, 2016, http://www.tdc.co.tt/listing.php/news-and-media/press-releases/220-extravagant-japanese-cruise-ship-makes-inauguration-visit-to-trinidad.

[xxx] Japan’s CARICOM Game plan,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.

[xxx] “Japan’s Position on the United Nations Shelter Council for the 21st Century,” Ministry of Foreign Concern of Japan, March 2011, accessed Oct 26, 2016, http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/un/sc/pdfs/pamph_unsc21c_en.pdf.

[cardinal] Ibid,.

[xxxiii]“Japan and Caribbean polity agree to cooperate on UNSC reform,” The Nippon Times, November 15, 2014, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/data/2014/11/15/national/japan-and-caribbean-country-agree-to-cooperate-on-unsc-reform/.

[cardinal] “CARICOM and Japan Further Strengthens Contact,” Caribbean Community (CARICOM), November 14, 2014, protocol://caricom.org/media-center/communications/exert pressure-releases/caricom-and-japan-further-reinforces-relationship/.

[xxxv] Julian Ryall, “Japan movement up campaign for full UN Security Council place,” Deutsche Welle, January 27, 2016, protocol://www.dw.com/en/japan-steps-up-campaign-for-full-un-protection-council-seat/a-19007001.

[xxxvi] Myers and Kuwayama, “A New Chapter in Japan-Latin America and the Caribbean Relationship.”

[xxxvii] Ibid.

[xxxviii] Sanjay Badri-Maharaj, “China’s Growth Influence in the Caribbean,” Institute for Defense Studies and Debate, August 3, 2016, http://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/crockery-growing-influence-in-the-caribbean_sbmaharaj_030816.

[xxxix] “Taiwan Nation Brief,” Government of Australia: Ministry of Strange Affairs and Trade, accessed October 27, 2016, protocol://dfat.gov.au/geo/taiwan/pages/taiwan-territory-brief.aspx.

[xl] Mark D. Wenner and Dillon Clarke, “Chinese Get to one’s feet in the Caribbean: What Does It Mean for Sea Stakeholders?,” Inter-American Development Swear, July 2016 accessed October 28, 2016, https://publicizing.iadb.org/bitstream/handle/11319/7777/Asian-Rise-in-the-Caribbean-What-Does-It-Penurious-for-Caribbean-Stakeholders.pdf; Badri-Maharaj, “China’s Ontogenesis Influence in the Caribbean;” Debbie-Ann Wright, “Chinese Legation Shocked By Allegations Contractors Paid PNP Kickback,” Jamaica Gleaner, August 31, 2016,protocol://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20160831/asian-embassy-shocked-allegations-contractors-paying-pnp-bribes.

[xlii] Myers and Kuwayama, “A New Sheet in Japan-Latin America and the Caribbean Affiliation.”

[xliii] Wenner and Clarke, “Chinese Get to one’s feet in the Caribbean.”

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